by Asma Noreen
Introduction
Growing up in a home marked by domestic violence has profound, long-term effects on a child’s character development, mental health, and future relationships. Witnessing violence between caregivers or family members during formative years is linked to a higher risk of psychological issues, problematic attachment styles, and relational difficulties in adulthood. Understanding these impacts not only helps us grasp the personal challenges faced by those who experienced childhood domestic violence but also guides the creation of more effective intervention and support strategies.
Psychological Impact of Witnessing Domestic Violence
Children who witness domestic violence often face significant emotional distress, including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This trauma can shape how they perceive themselves, others, and the world around them. Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1969) suggests that children need stable and supportive relationships to develop a secure sense of self and others. When these children experience violence between caregivers, their ability to trust and form healthy relationships may be compromised, leading to insecure attachment styles that persist into adulthood (Peled & Davis, 2008).
Research demonstrates that witnessing domestic violence can cause a child’s stress response system to become overactive, making them more prone to emotional dysregulation and reactive aggression (McClure et al., 2008). Felitti et al.’s (1998) seminal study on Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) revealed that exposure to domestic violence and similar traumas correlates with higher risks of both emotional and physical health issues later in life. Additionally, Widom et al. (2014) found that individuals exposed to violence early on may struggle with revictimization and mental health issues over their lifetimes.
Impact on Character Development
Exposure to violence during childhood can lead to the development of maladaptive character traits. Children in violent environments may learn to view aggression as a valid response to conflict, potentially affecting their personality and social behavior as they grow older. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) explains that children often imitate behaviors observed in their environment, which can include aggressive or violent responses if they are normalized at home.
Jenkins (2023) found that children who experienced domestic violence were more likely to exhibit traits such as hostility, low self-esteem, and emotional avoidance. This maladaptive development is often compounded by a lack of emotional support or positive role models, which can reinforce harmful patterns. Over time, these traits can impair an individual’s ability to engage in healthy interpersonal relationships and increase the likelihood of perpetuating cycles of abuse in their own families.
Effect on Adult Relationships
Adults who witnessed domestic violence as children often carry unresolved trauma into their relationships, which can manifest in various dysfunctional patterns, such as difficulty with trust, fear of intimacy, and dependency issues. The concept of trauma bonding suggests that early exposure to abusive dynamics can cause individuals to form strong attachments to unhealthy relationships, a pattern that can persist into adulthood (Richards, 2023).
Attachment Theory is relevant here as well, as it highlights how early attachment disruptions can lead to either avoidant or anxious attachment styles. Studies have shown that individuals with these insecure attachment styles may have difficulty maintaining stable and healthy relationships, often exhibiting higher levels of jealousy, fear of abandonment, and controlling behaviors (Riggs & Kaminski, 2010). In addition, trauma can lead to emotional numbing or fear of conflict, preventing individuals from forming deep, trusting bonds with others.
Mental Health Consequences
The psychological impact of witnessing domestic violence extends well into adulthood. Adults who grew up in violent households are at a greater risk for a range of mental health issues, including depression, anxiety disorders, substance abuse, and PTSD. Studies such as those by Widom, Czaja, and Dutton (2014) emphasize that the mental health toll of childhood trauma is often cumulative, with unresolved childhood distress leading to vulnerability to further trauma, revictimization, and chronic mental health challenges.
Moreover, recent research into neurodevelopment has shown that childhood trauma can physically alter brain development, particularly in areas responsible for emotional regulation and impulse control. Chronic exposure to stress and violence can heighten sensitivity to stress and increase the likelihood of mood disorders (McClure et al., 2008). This biological impact underscores the importance of early intervention and support to help mitigate these lasting effects.
The Role of Domestic Violence in Schizophrenia Development
Recent research suggests that childhood exposure to domestic violence may increase the risk of developing severe mental health disorders, including schizophrenia. Stress-Diathesis Theory provides a framework for understanding this link, suggesting that while genetic predispositions can play a role, environmental stressors like domestic violence can trigger or exacerbate psychotic symptoms in susceptible individuals (Morgan & Fisher, 2007).
Children who experience repeated exposure to violence are at a heightened risk of experiencing trauma-related psychosis. Studies have found that prolonged exposure to extreme stress can impact brain development, specifically in areas like the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, which are involved in stress response and impulse control (Read, 2013). Additionally, Varese et al. (2012) conducted a meta-analysis that found a significant association between childhood trauma, including exposure to domestic violence, and increased risk for psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. This research highlights that trauma from domestic violence does not only affect emotional well-being but can potentially lead to complex disorders requiring comprehensive, long-term treatment.
Intervention and Policy Implications
Considering these complex and lasting impacts, a multi-layered approach to intervention is essential. Trauma-informed therapies, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), have proven effective in helping individuals process trauma and develop healthier coping strategies. However, Person-Centred Counseling is another valuable approach, especially for individuals affected by domestic violence trauma.
The Role of Person-Centred Counseling in Trauma Recovery
Person-centred counseling, pioneered by Carl Rogers, offers a humanistic approach that is uniquely suited to help individuals who have experienced trauma, including those exposed to domestic violence in childhood. This therapeutic approach is based on core principles such as unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence, creating a nonjudgmental environment that encourages self-exploration and self-acceptance (Rogers, 1951).
For survivors of childhood domestic violence, person-centred counseling can be particularly effective because it centers on the individual’s own experience and promotes a sense of empowerment and autonomy. The therapist’s role is to listen actively, validate the client’s feelings, and offer a compassionate presence, rather than directing or diagnosing. This can be crucial for individuals who may have had little control over their environment growing up. Studies have shown that this type of therapeutic alliance, grounded in respect and empathy, helps clients rebuild self-trust, develop a positive self-concept, and enhance their emotional resilience (Elliott et al., 2013).
Person-centred counseling also aligns with trauma-informed care principles, which prioritize safety, trustworthiness, and empowerment—factors that are particularly beneficial for individuals with histories of trauma. By fostering an environment of acceptance and empathy, person-centred counselling allows clients to explore their past experiences at their own pace, helping them to process unresolved emotional distress without feeling pressured or judged.
Broader Community and Policy Interventions
While person-centred counselling is effective at an individual level, broader community and policy interventions are essential for supporting those impacted by domestic violence. Family and community-based interventions that promote resilience-building and offer support for at-risk families can reduce the likelihood of intergenerational trauma (Peled & Davis, 2008). Policies that prioritize funding for mental health services and advocate for educational programs in emotional regulation and healthy conflict resolution can also help to mitigate the long-term effects of childhood trauma.
Conclusion
Witnessing domestic violence during childhood has far-reaching effects on mental health, character development, and relationships in adulthood. For those affected, interventions such as person-centred counselling, which fosters a nonjudgmental, empathetic environment, and broader support systems can provide essential pathways for recovery. Through comprehensive support systems and trauma-informed approaches, we can help survivors break the cycle of trauma and build healthier, more resilient lives.
References
Peled, E., & Davis, D. (2008). Groupwork with children and adolescents: Prevention and intervention in school and community systems. Routledge.
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245-258.
Widom, C. S., Czaja, S. J., & Dutton, M. A. (2014). Childhood victimization and lifetime revictimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(10), 1618-1629.
Richards, T. N. (2023). The cycle of violence: Intergenerational transmission of abusive behaviors. Journal of Family Studies, 14(2), 210-222.
McClure, H. H., Chavez, J. B. R., Agars, M. D., Peacock, D., & Matosian, A. (2008). Resilience in sexually abused women: Risk factors and protective factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(5), 597-619.
Riggs, S. A., & Kaminski, P. (2010). Childhood emotional abuse, adult attachment, and depression as predictors of relational adjustment and psychological aggression. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19(1), 75-104.
Morgan, C., & Fisher, H. (2007). Environmental factors in schizophrenia: Childhood trauma—a critical review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33(1), 3-10.
Read, J., et al. (2013). The traumagenic neurodevelopmental model of psychosis revisited. Neuropsychiatry, 3(4), 3-8.
Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin.
Varese, F., et al. (2012). Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: A meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38(4), 661-671.
Elliott, R., Watson, J., Goldman, R. N., & Greenberg, L. S. (2013). Learning emotion-focused therapy: The process-experiential approach to change. American Psychological Association.